Dubai and the UAE
United Arab Emirates
The Federation of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) was formed in December 1971 following the unilateral decision of the British to end their protectorate of what had formerly been known as the Trucial States. The Federation has endured in spite of a certain imbalance of wealth, occasional border disputes and jealousies between the Emirates. It comprises seven Emirates: Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Umm al Quwain, Fujairah, Ras al Khaimah and Ajman.| Land Area | % of Total | Population | |
| Abu Dhabi | 67,600 | 87% | 1,591,000 |
| Dubai | 3,900 | 5% | 1,204,000 |
| Sharjah | 2,600 | 3% | 636,000 |
| Ajman | 250 | <1% | 235,000 |
| Ras Al Khaimah | 1,700 | 2% | 195,000 |
| Fujairah | 1,150 | 1% | 62,000 |
| Umm Al Quwain | 750 | <1% | 62,000 |
| Total | 77,950 | 4,041,000 |
The capital of the UAE is Abu Dhabi and the founding President was the Ruler of Abu Dhabi, H.H. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayyan, since the formation of the UAE on 2 December 1971 up to his death on 2 November 2004.
Executive Branch:
 | Head of State H.H. Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed al Nahayan (b.1948) |
President of the UAE Ruler of Abu Dhabi (2004 -) |
 | Head of Government H.H. Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid al Maktoum (b.1949) |
Vice-President of the UAE |
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Ruler of Sharjah (1972 - ) |
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Ruler of Ras al Khaimah (1948 - ) |
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Ruler of Fujairah (1974 - ) |
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Ruler of Umm al Quwain (2009 - ) |
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Ruler of Ajman (1981 - ) |
The highest federal authority rests with the Supreme Council of Rulers. Decisions need the support of Abu Dhabi, Dubai and any three other Emirates. The cabinet has 24 portfolios, while the Federal National Council has 40 members; eight each for Abu Dhabi and Dubai, six each for Sharjah and Ras al Khaimah and four each for the remaining Emirates. Abu Dhabi and Dubai contribute 50% of their oil revenue towards the Federal budget, after deducting their own expenditure in defence, security, health and education.
The UAE is a member of the Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC), which was formed in 1981 with Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman. Its objectives are unified defence, foreign policy, customs duty, currency, banking population and taxation
Dubai
Dubai is the second largest Emirate after Abu Dhabi and was a co-founder of the United Arab Emirates in 1971.It has borders with Oman, Abu Dhabi and Sharjah. The twelve-kilometre long creek divides the city of Dubai into two parts: one known as “Deira side” and the other as “Dubai side”. The creek is crossed by two bridges and a tunnel, whilst abras (passenger ferries) offer another option. The oldest part of Dubai is the Bastakia area near the museum and Ruler’s office. Dubai City is the capital of the Emirate of Dubai and the seat of Government. It started to gain importance as an entrepot after the decline of the port of Lingah in Iran, when high customs dues were introduced there in 1902. The facilities provided by the creek and the free trading policy enhanced the importance of Dubai, which was a thriving port long before oil was discovered in 1966.Dubai’s system of Government is highly centralised in the person of the Ruler.His ultimate and powerful control is exercised mainly through the Ruler’s offices and Dubai Municipality. The absence of any government machinery like a cabinet, parliament or long string of advisers facilitated quick decision-making. This has resulted in the speedy development of Dubai. The willingness and ability to encourage rapid and sensible development is very much part of the character of the Emirate.
H.H. Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum ruled Dubai from 1958 till 1990. He had, however, been actively involved in the state affairs since 1938. He became Vice President of the UAE at its formation in 1971 and Prime Minister in 1979. He was a strong, able ruler, working long hours and keeping his Majlis open to the public. Until the early 1980s, when he became ill, he was readily available to local nationals for consultations, advice and guidance. Respect for his achievements in Dubai (including the construction of an effective infrastructure, the building of Port Rashid in Dubai, the Dubai Dry Docks and the Jebel Ali Port) remains very strong.
During his illness, his three elder sons picked up the reins of government and on his death in October 1990, H.H. first son, H.H. Sheikh Maktoum, became Ruler of Dubai and Prime Minister of the UAE. The second son, H.H. Sheikh Hamdan, is the Deputy Ruler of Dubai and UAE Minister of Finance. The third son, H.H. Sheikh Mohammed was appointed Crown Prince in 1995 and is the most public known figure and very active in day-to-day Dubai affairs. He controls Oil Affairs in Dubai and is also UAE Minister of Defence.The youngest son, H.H. Sheikh Ahmed, is in charge of the Central Military Command of Dubai and does not get involved in the affairs of the government.
Dubai has a predominantly expatriate population with only 10% made up of UAE Nationals. The largest resident nationalities are Indian, Pakistani, Filipino and Sri Lankan, with the combined European and American community taking up around 5%.
The Economy in Dubai
For generations Dubai - the “City of Merchants” - has been an important trading and distribution centre for goods to Iran, Oman, Saudi Arabia and the other Gulf States. Moreover, large quantities of gold used to be exported to India and Pakistan with a return cargo of silver. Being a free port, the consignments were legally shipped out of Dubai but smuggled into the countries at the other end. The peak of this business was between 1955-56 when some merchants made quick fortunes.After the discovery of oil in the mid-sixties and the steep rise in oil prices in the 1970s, Dubai developed at an incredibly fast rate, particularly during 1973-1980. This period saw rapid growth in construction, the development of an infrastructure and major expansion in the services sector. Dubai’s need for development meant that its trading base was broadened and its economy diversified. The late Sheikh Rashid planned for, and commissioned, the Dubai International Trade Centre; the Dubai Dry Docks; the Gulf’s largest aluminium smelter; and Jebel Ali Port (now a Free Zone), which all became key parts of Dubai’s commercial and industrial development. At the time, with oil flowing freely, these projects were regarded with much scepticism; but they proved to be a far-sighted, if expensive, investment, which firmly established Dubai as the Middle East’s commercial capital.
Today, Dubai continues to enjoy a healthy business climate. Dubai has a clear strategy of diversification into high value-added services (e.g. tourism) and manufacturing (e.g. electronics) to supplement the current trading activity, which is still the backbone of the private economy. It has achieved remarkable success and is confirming its position as a regional hub with continuing growth in the number of companies opting for regional headquarters in Dubai.
Dubai’s relationship with Abu Dhabi is stable, with a particularly strong personal relationship between H.H. Sheikh Kalifa Al Nahayan and the Al Maktoums.
Climate
Dubai has a desert climate, the summers are very hot and humidity can reach 100%.Winters are cooler and drier (like a European summer) with occasional heavy downpours in January, February and March.Average annual rainfall is 112mm. The prevailing wind is from the sea and windstorms, known as “shamaal”, are a feature of the climate. These may occur 5 or 6 times a year, mostly during the summer, and can sometimes last 36 hours. The coast sometimes has thick early morning fog in the spring and autumn.
| Daily Average Maximum Temperature (°C) | Daily Average Minimum Temperature (°C) | Sunshine (Daily Hours) | Rainfall (cm) | |
| January | 24 | 15 | 7.8 | 1.3 |
| February | 24 | 14 | 8.0 | 3.3 |
| March | 27 | 17 | 8.1 | 2.1 |
| April | 32 | 20 | 9.5 | 1.4 |
| May | 37 | 23 | 11.1 | 0.3 |
| June | 39 | 26 | 11.3 | nil |
| July | 41 | 28 | 10.3 | nil |
| August | 42 | 29 | 10.3 | nil |
| September | 39 | 26 | 10.2 | nil |
| October | 35 | 22 | 9.8 | nil |
| November | 30 | 18 | 9.4 | 0.3 |
| December | 27 | 15 | 8.2 | 1.3 |
Society and Customs
Society in the UAE is still largely conservative, with a stress on religion, hospitality and good manners. It is useful to get familiar with the most important local customs and traditions, although the degree to which many of these customs are adhered to, can vary.Socialising and Entertainment
Arabs consider hospitality a capital virtue. Offering free food and lodging to complete strangers is not very unusual even in modern Arab towns. In the absence of a meal, an Arab will offer you a cup of coffee, the traditional drink. Arabic coffee is unsweetened and is served in small measures in little cups with no handles.You are usually given more than one cup and it is not improper to ask for a third cup if nobody else is waiting to be served after you, but in smaller receptions you should be satisfied with two cups. As people very often drink out of the same cup, you should drain your coffee to the last drop before you hand back your cup so that he can pour a measure in the same cup for the person next to you. When you are offered a cup of coffee, your host, standing, will not place it on the table in front or beside you, but will hand it over to you. You have to accept it with your right hand. When you have finished, you should return the cup into the host’s right hand, with a gentle shake indicating that you have had sufficient. If you want to take your time over the coffee, you should ask your host to sit down before you can put your cup aside. It is considered bad manners to keep your host standing before you with the coffee pot while you drink at your leisure.
When offered something to drink or to eat, Gulf Arabs will use only their right hand. The right hand is kept scrupulously clean especially for this purpose. In casual invitations to drop in or join in, a Gulf Arab will say to you “tefadhdhal” or “tefadhdhalee” (to a woman), which means “be good enough to come, drop or join in” and more often than not, his invitation is real and not just a pleasantry.
Arabs do not put one leg over the other in the presence of a senior or an equal with whom they stand on ceremony. It is always extremely bad manners to show the soles of your feet (of shoes, sandals etc.). Neither do they smoke in the presence of a senior man in the family. When Arabs invite 4 or 5 people to a meal, they usually cook for double or triple that number. The amount of food placed before a guest may be taken as an indication of a host’s generosity as well as of his esteem for his guest. When they sit down to a meal to eat with their fingers, Gulf Arabs do not often indulge in conversation. A host does not always eat with his guests, as he would rather concentrate on waiting upon them.
If a host eats with his guests, he never finishes before each one of them does, lest the tardy eater should feel embarrassed and rise from the meal before he has had a sufficiency. Muslims do not consume alcohol as this is against their religious belief, but some occasionally do. It is as well to wait for the host to make the first move in this direction. If you are the host, it is probably not wise to serve alcohol because it can be considered offensive.
Arabs of whatever walk of life are usually very polite. Protocol is considered to be of greatest importance. Most Arab reception rooms (generally called a Majlis) have their chairs arranged around the walls facing inwards and the host sits to one end or side. The one or two seats on either side of him are considered the most important. As important people enter the room they are invited to take the best seats and those already sitting in them move down to make way for the newcomer. It is always polite for a visitor to try to sit at the least important seat at the bottom end of the room. He will immediately be urged to move to a better seat.
Although Arabs are keen on observing protocol, they are extremely democratic and egalitarian in their life style. The ruler of an Arab state is normally accessible to the lowliest of his citizens on whatever issue.
Westerners should always behave with politeness and pay attention to the habits of dress and behaviour. Patronising or condescending airs must be avoided at all cost as well as forced or undignified familiarity. Arabs are not impressed by Westerners who speak with contempt or criticism of other Western countries. Politics should be avoided.
Greetings and Modes of Address
Arabs greet one another a great deal. Muslims are encouraged to greet all people whether they know them or not. Whenever a Gulf Arab goes into a room, wants to address a stranger, passes by someone, begins a letter or opens a telephone conversation, he will say a greeting first.
| As-Salaam Alaykum | 'Peace be upon you' |
| Wa Alaykum As-Salaam | Reply to As-Salaam Alaykum |
| Sabaah Alkhayr | Good morning |
| Missa Alkhayr | Good afternooon / evening |
| Marhaba | Hello |
| Kaif Alhal | How are you? |
| Kayf Alsaha | How is your health? |
| Fie Amaan Allah | 'In the custody of God' / Goodbye |
| Ma'a As-Salama | 'Safety will be with you' / Goodbye |
| Insh'allah | God willing |
If you care to elaborate, you can proceed from the formal to the casual (nevre the other way round, of course). A combination of the casual greeting may sometimes serve as conversation opener or pause filler. As "Salaamu Alaykum" on the other hand, can be used with anybody, anytime of the day or night, but cannot be used except at the very beginning or at the very end of a conversation.
Who greets whom? Among strangers, the more “mobile” or the more “agile” of the two parties begins; a man in a car greets the man on the road; a man walking greets the man sitting. In case of groups of people, it’s the fewer who greet the more. Again, it’s the junior who greets the senior - in age or position. But these rules are not meticulously observed. Arab men shake hands freely when they meet and when they part. They sometimes kiss noses; the junior man kisses the top of the senior man’s nose. Equals may just touch nose, but non-Arabs are not expected to exercise this form of greeting. Please note that some Arab women do not wish to shake hands of unrelated men, some Arab men prefer not to shake hands with women.
Arabs place more emphasis on the first name than on the family name. They take only one first name; the middle name is always that of the father. A senior man is rarely called by his first name, unless preceded by a courteous and reverent title such as “Amm” (Uncle). He is called by the name of his first male child preceded by the word “Abu” (Father of). If he has no male child, a man is usually called by the name of his father preceded by “Abu” as a great number of men give their father’s name to their eldest son. This form of address immediately places the addressee at a level which is neither too formal nor too familiar and is conducive to ease on both sides. Even friends resort to this form of address among themselves as it shows respect and affection at the same time. Sheikhs are addressed by “Tal Umrak” (May God prolong your life) without mentioning their first names.
Do’s and Don’ts
| DO | DON'T |
| Attitude |
|
| Always start a meeting with social conversation | Beckon people with your forefinger or with an upturned palm |
| Speak slowly and clearly | Ask a Bedouin how many camels he owns |
| Use restrained language | Criticise custioms / legal system / religion / local people |
| Ask about their children | Ask about their wives or daughters |
| Try to learn basic greeting in Arabic | Refer to Islam |
| Customs |
|
| Understand the meaning of Ramadan and the Haj | Eat or drink in public during Ramadan |
| Always use your right hand when passing anything | Use your left hand for greeting, eating or serving |
| Place your feet on teh floor | Show the soles of your feet |
| Offer refreshments and drink (not pork or alcohol) | Serve non-Halal food |
| Leave a little food on your plate | Be offended if you are offered more food even if you have already declined |
| It is polite to refuse first and then accept | Comment on the appreciation of an item belonging to an Arab (eg "what a nice painting") as he will feel obliged to offer it to you |
| General |
|
| Accept that time-keeping has a different importance | Be late even though time does not have teh same relevance to locals |
| Accept that society is very hierarchical | Attempt to enter a mosque |
| Repeat the offer of a gift, even if declined first time | Send Christmas cards to Muslims |
Religion
As in all Arab countries society, life and attitudes are inextricably linked with the Muslim religion. It is therefore, useful to understand the background and beliefs of Islam. What follows is intended as a brief, but hopefully interesting, introduction.The Quran, which Muslims regard as the word of God Himself, is therefore the chief source of Islamic doctrines and practices. Islam pervades the whole life of the community of its faithful. In a Muslim country, such as the UAE, which recognises the law of Islam as its fundamental code, religious law prevails in numerous matters covering human relations and conduct which in other states fall within the province of civil law. The UAE civil law is based on Napoleonic law.
Early in its history, Islam was split into two great sects, the Sunni and the Shi’a, which are themselves further sub-divided into a number of other sects. The Islamic religion itself is extremely simple and personal. There are no priests, nor are there any elaborate rites or ceremonies. There are prayer leaders, religious teachers and religious judges, but the main concept is one of direct relationship between the individual and God without any earthly intermediary. The simple ceremonies of the prayers and pilgrimage are performed by each person as an individual, although joining with others in worship is deemed to be meritorious.
The Mosques are sanctified places for prayer. Muslims are called to prayer five times a day and these calls may often be heard if you live close to a mosque. Westerners should exercise extreme caution to avoid playing loud music during the call to prayers. The leader of the prayers recites verses from the Quran; there is no instrumental or vocal music. Sermons are only preached on Fridays and on special occasions. Muslims spend much time discussing religion and men who are well versed and eloquent may acquire great influence. The religion of a good Muslim pervades every hour of his/her life and there are few moments in an ordinary conversation which do not contain reference to God. The word Insh’allah is used often and means that something will happen ‘if God is willing’.
Key Aspects of Islam
1. The Prophet Mohammed (Peace Be Upon Him)
The Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) was born in the prosperous trading city of Mecca around 570AD. Although he was a member of a noble tribe, he passed his early years in poverty. His father died before he was born; his mother died when he was two. Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) had to rely on the charity of his kinsmen until he was old enough to earn his own living as a camel-driver and trader. He soon gained a reputation for honesty and became known as “Al-Amin” (The Trustworthy).When he was twenty-five, Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) married his employer, a wealthy widow called Khadijah. With spare time at his command he began to spend days and nights meditating in the hills around his native city. When he was about forty he experienced a revelation. The Angel Gabriel appeared to him and ordered him to recite a message from God. From this moment Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) was a man with a sacred mission, destined to bring God’s word to his fellow men.
At first only a few of Prophet Mohammed’s (PBUH) close relatives and friends accepted him as a religious leader, but as he gained more and more converts the rich and powerful men of Mecca began to persecute them, fearing that the new religion would challenge their authority and ruin the profitable pilgrimage trade which centred on the city’s sacred shrine, the Ka’ba.
In 622 Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) and his followers left Mecca and went to live in Yathrib (later called Medina) about 200 miles away. This event is called the Hijra (sometimes written Hegira) which means “migration”. It is regarded by Muslims as the formal date of the foundation of their religion and marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar. The community of believers at Yathrib accepted Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) as both a religious and a political leader and supported him in his long struggle to win over the people of Mecca by war and diplomacy. In 630 he re-entered his native city in triumph without bloodshed. His most important act was to purify the Ka’ba by removing all the idols which were inside it. Within two years he persuaded all the other cities and tribes of Arabia to accept his authority.
Within a century of his death in 632 Prophet Mohammed’s (PBUH) followers had spread the new faith over a vast area, carving out an empire which stretched from Spain to the borders of China. Although this empire soon began to fragment politically, it was held together by ties of trade, language and belief. Islam is still spreading today, especially in Africa and each day more than one billion Muslims, from Morocco to Indonesia, turn towards Mecca to pray.
2. The Faith
Islam means “submission” to the will of God as revealed to Man in the Quran. To Muslims there is one God alone, Allah. He is served by Angels and will, on the inevitable Day of Judgement, assign men to Heaven or Hell according to how they have lived their lives. The Muslim does not regard his/her religion as separate from Judaism and Christianity but rather as embracing and transcending them.Twenty-eight prophets are named in the Quran including Adam, Abraham, Moses, David and Jesus, and the Torah, the Psalms and Gospels are recognised as partial revelations from Allah. For this reason Jews and Christians were recognised as ‘Ahel Alkitab’ (people of the book) by early Muslim conquerors and allowed to practice their religion in peace.
Every Muslim is required to carry out five specific duties which together are known as “Pillars of the Faith” (i) Recitation of the Shahada
At least once in his life a Muslim must publicly proclaim his faith by pronouncing the creed “La ilaha illa Allah, Mohammed rasul Allah” (There is no God but Allah, Mohammed is the Messenger of Allah). In practice most Muslims repeat this phrase many times each day as part of their prayers. (ii) Salat (prayer)
The words and ritual motions of prayer are precisely defined and should be performed five times a day; before sunrise, around midday, in mid-afternoon, at sunset and before going to bed. Prayer should be preceded by the ablution, a ritual washing of hands, arms, face, ears, nose and feet. This is why mosques usually have fountains. Shoes should be removed and women should cover their head. All prayers must be facing in the direction of Mecca. On Friday at noon, Muslims should go the mosque to pray and hear the Imam preach a sermon. (iii) Zakat (almsgiving)
Islam requires Muslims to pay a percentage of their wealth each year in taxes to be used for the support of the poor, orphans, widows, etc. Islam is not opposed to private wealth, but it does encourage the believer to use it responsibly for the good of the community. (iv) Sawm (fasting)
During the month of Ramadan, the ninth in the Muslim Calendar and the one in which the Quran was revealed, Muslims are obliged to fast from sunrise to sunset. By abstaining completely from eating, drinking and smoking during the hours of daylight the Muslim is encouraged to practice self-discipline (and remind himself of the hunger of the poor). In hot countries, like UAE, this is a real test of endurance. Young children, pregnant women and the very old can be exempt from fasting. Travellers are exempt while on their journey, but are expected to make up lost time later on, and so are people who are ill during Ramadan. Those who do not fast are expected to be respectful and considerate to those who do, by refraining from smoking, drinking or eating in their presence. The end of the month of fasting is celebrated by the festival Eid-al-Fitr, when there is great feasting. (v) The Hajj (pilgrimage)
Once in his/her lifetime a Muslim is expected to undertake the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca. But only those who can afford the expense of the journey and maintain their family while they are gone should do this. The Hajj can only be made during the month of “Dhu’l Hijja”, the twelfth and most sacred in the Muslim calendar. When the pilgrim arrives at the outskirts of Mecca, he/she performs the ritual washing and exchanges whatever clothes he may be wearing for two plain pieces of white cloth. This symbolises the equality of all believers before God, regardless of wealth, birth, race or country.
Entering Mecca, the pilgrim makes seven circuits of the Ka’ba. After performing various other rituals, he/she goes to Mount Arafat, nine miles away, where, on the ninth day of the pilgrimage, he/she hears a sermon. This is the high point of the Hajj: in the company of hundreds of thousands of fellow believers the pilgrim prays at the spot where Prophet Mohammed (BPUH) preached his last sermon. At Mina the pilgrim throws stones at pillars which represent the devil and temptation, and makes a sacrifice of a sheep or a goat. Returning to Mecca he/she then repeats the rituals at the Ka’ba.
The pilgrim may then go on to visit Prophet Mohammed’s (PBUH) tomb and prays at his Mosque in Medina, although this is not officially part of the pilgrimage. Upon the return home he can add “al-Hajj/al-Hajji” to his/her name. The sacrifice of the sheep and their distribution to the poor initiates a four-day celebration known as Id al-Adha.
3. Ramadan and Eid Al-Fitr
Eid al-Fitr, one of the most important days on the Islamic calendar is the festival of the breaking of the fast. The day marks the climax of the exacting month-long fast of Ramadan and is also the beginning of the tenth lunar month of Shawwal. This festive occasion celebrates the believers’ exuberant thanksgiving to God for enabling them to fast during Ramadan. To ensure that no one is deprived of joining in these joyous festivities, every member of a Muslim household is ordained to carry out a universal levy called Zakat Al-Fitr. In the case of children, their guardians must fulfil this religious duty on their behalf. Zakat al-Fitr takes the form of the giving of provisions or money to those less fortunate than oneself.4. Women and Islam
Although Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) encouraged monogamy, polygamy was allowed although restricted to men only. The Quranic line in which a man is permitted to take up to four wives is followed immediately by one which reads: “If you cannot deal equitably and justly with all, you shall marry only one”. The meaning of equity (adl) is equity both in social treatment and in love.Arab society revolves round the family unit and the woman is considered to be the heart of the family, a position which enjoys respect and security. Should she be dishonoured, then her family is also dishonoured and on this basis the men of the family defend her from external threats. The demand that women should dress and behave modestly is seen by Muslims as a symbol of the importance of women as mothers and guardians of the family. Penalties for adultery are severe.
Although women in the UAE still seem to lead a rather restricted life by Western standards, steps are being taken in improved education and greater social responsibility. Educational opportunities for women are now on a par with those for men, though social constraints somewhat limit the choice of subject. Employment outside the home is now acceptable in certain fields, though this does depend on the attitude of the individual’s family.
5. Islamic Law: “Sharia”
Sharia law derives from four sources - the Quran, the Sunnah, Ijmaa and Qiyas. The Quran is the primary and most important source. When a judge needs further guidance to make his decision he may draw on the Sunnah. The Sunnah consists of those of the Prophet’s deeds and utterances (Hadith) which have been passed down the generations and backed up by a chain of authority accepted by the Islamic umma (nation). Ijmaa and Qiyas are of less importance than either the Quran or the Sunnah; Ijmaa is the consensus of religious scholars (ulema) on problems whose solutions are not directly found in the Quran or the Sunnah. The final source Qiyas, means “reasoning by analogy” with regard to the first three sources, where a clear decision cannot be made on the basis of those three.As in most Western systems, an individual is deemed innocent in Sharia law until proved guilty. Likewise, the burden of proof falls not on the accused but on the accuser. Again, as in the West, a system of appeals exists. In Sharia law all men are equal before the court - the plaintiff and the defendant sit side by side while the case is being heard. The qadi’s (judge) role is an active one. He will question all sides at will, there being neither jury nor (usually) lawyers between himself and the parties at dispute.
Sometimes the qadi will conclude a case by reconciliation (sulh), when he will usually recommend which party is in the right. To prove his case, the plaintiff must produce two or, in certain cases, four eyewitnesses. If he cannot produce such witnesses he may, instead, demand an oath from the defendant. The latter will automatically be judged guilty if he refuses to take it. Muslims maintain that few men would dare risk the fires of hell by making a false oath.